REPORT

English Language Attitudes of Final-Year High School and First-Year University Students in Papua New Guinea

Indeed, colonial administrations, both German and Australian, in general exercised deliberate policies of fostering German and English respectively, often through the negative practice of concomitantly suppressing Tok Pisin. In German New Guinea, for example, Baron von Hesse-Wartegg strongly condemned the use of Tok Pisin by declaring that it would be a source of lasting disgrace for the world standing of Germany if Pidgin was not rooted out (Hall, 1955, p. 35). Similarly, the Lieutenant Governor of Papua, Sir Hubert Murray, decreed that English, due to its inherent superiority, should be the language of instruction in schools (Smith, 1987, p. 20). His officers were instructed not to use Tok Pisin and to prevent the geographic and demographic spread of this "veiled gibberish" (Nekitel, 1995, p. 56).

However, such one-sided and often draconian policies were not always without controversy. For example, W. C. Groves, an administrative officer and later Director of Education, strongly opposed Murray's views on the suppression of these languages and suggested that local languages should be used in village schools (Johnson, 1977b, p. 809). While he had some reservations regarding the use of Tok Pisin, he nevertheless recommended that it could be used where use of the mother tongue was found not to be suitable. Two consultants, Professor Arthur Capell of the University of Sydney and Camilla Wedgewood, who were called upon by the colonial administration in the late 1940s to advise on language policy, largely concurred with Groves' views (Nekitel, 1995, pp. 57-58).

While the post-war Australian Labor government adopted a flexible approach towards language policy for its colony, the subsequent Liberal government, which assumed office in 1949, took a hard line against the use of vernaculars and lingua francas, even to the extent of making those church schools which used vernaculars for instruction ineligible for subsidies (Nekitel, 1995, p. 59). This approach was confirmed by the United Nations Trusteeship Council Mission in 1953 when it declared that because Tok Pisin was "corrupt" and "colonialistic," it should be abolished and replaced "by fiat and overnight" (Johnson, 1977a, p. 443). It is ironic that this recommendation was given in the same year as the declaration of another branch of the same organisation which stated "that it is axiomatic that the best medium for teaching a child is the mother tongue" (The use of vernacular languages in education, 1953, p. 11).

However, it soon became apparent that any policy dedicated to the suppression of Tok Pisin was doomed to failure, as Tok Pisin continued to be increasingly widely used as the vehicle of informal communication. Linguists argued in favour of its use (see Hall, 1955) and by the time Independence came in 1975, it had even become linked with nationalism (Wurm & Muhlhausler, 1977, p. 258). Furthermore, throughout their schooling, from primary to tertiary levels, the vast majority of students were, and still are, far more confident and fluent in the use of Tok Pisin than in the use of English. This fact has led former University of Papua New Guinea Professor Tom Dutton to argue in favour of replacing English with Tok Pisin as a medium of instruction (Dutton, 1976). Although a national debate resulted from Dutton's arguments (see McDonald, 1976), the use of English in education and the professions continues to this day. And while "Tok Pisin is gaining ground...English is certainly here to stay" (Nekitel, 1995, p. 61).

The continued use of English in Papua New Guinea as a language of instruction from primary to tertiary education, as well as the vehicle of professional communication, closely parallels trends in other countries where the English language is assuming increased presence and import-ance. In Hong Kong, for example, more students than ever are exposed to English in the school system, in spite of the fact that Chinese languages have been gaining status (Pennington & Yue, 1994, p. 2). As was the case in Papua New Guinea, this increasing dominance of English was the direct result of government directives which officially promoted English language education for the local population (Yu, 1987; Bickley, 1990). Similarly in Singapore (Kwan-Terry, 1993), Malaysia (Gill, 1993), and Japan (Tsuruta, 1996) the economic, social, and political changes which resulted from increasing Westernisation have caused accelerated demands by both the public and private sectors for graduates with appropriate English skills.

Therefore, while it is unlikely that in Papua New Guinea the use of English will diminish in the school system, the government has commenced far-reaching educational reforms which will result in children being taught initial literacy in their own languages, with a vernacular, Tok Pisin or Hiri Motu being used as the sole medium of instruction up to grade 2. During grade 3, the teaching of English literacy will be formally introduced, and English will gradually increase as a language of instruction (Nekitel, 1995, p. 60). It is the intention of the government that as the reforms are systematically implemented on a year-by-year basis, English will become and remain the main, but not the sole, language of instruction (The education reform, 1996, pp. 10-12).

It is hypothesized that the historical and educational context briefly described above does have an effect on students' attitudes towards English, and some development does occur during the transition period from high school to university. Certainly, by the time the students reach year 12 at high school, competence in English as a factor of professional success would obviously be recognised. This recognition, one would surmise, would gain clarity and urgency at university as students prepare to enter the high-status professions. However, it would be a mistake to analyse students' attitudes towards English purely in utilitarian terms. In the psycho-social domain, questions need to be asked such as: To what extent does competence in English contribute to the enhancement of interpersonal relationships? Do students feel that a knowledge of English enables them to have access to a greater range of forms of entertainment or types of media? How great is English a factor in students' self-esteem? How do students relate to English in terms of their attitudes towards the other languages they know, especially towards the almost universally-spoken Tok Pisin which has in the past vied with English for pre-eminence as Papua New Guinea's official language? Questions such as these need to be addressed and while anecdotal evidence seems to indicate that attitudes towards English by both high school and university students are generally positive, a clear indication of students' perceptions towards a variety of English language usage contexts, would clearly be of use for language and education planners.

The justification of this socio-psychological research can be found in the general perception of educators that attitudes are largely responsible for the intensity of students' responses in the classroom and are both predictors of, and contributors towards, students' achievement in language learning. While improved instructional materials, syllabus design, and teaching approaches all play a role in improving learner achievement, such achievement is not maximised if the students do not exhibit a positive orientation towards their subject. Furthermore, studies have shown (see, for example, Gardner, 1985) that there is a direct correlation between motivation and attitude; that is, motivation constitutes a positive attitude combined with effort and desire. In the language learning context, motivation (to learn the language) refers to the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitudes towards learning the language (Gardner, 1985, p. 10 -- emphasis supplied).

Purpose

A related purpose was to compare the language attitudes of year 12 with those of first-year university students. The aim was, on the basis of this comparison, to analyse any developments in attitudes towards English which have taken place during the transition period from high school to university.

Subjects

Procedure

"I wish that I could speak fluent and accurate English."
"The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures."
"To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment."
"I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school."
"I like to see English speaking films."
"The English language sounds very nice."

This strong agreement by Year 12 students to give highest rankings to statements which reflect a positive cognitive-affective orientation towards English appears to indicate that these students possess a strong motivation towards English.

Year 12 students disagreed most strongly with the following statement:

"I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English."

This statement was ranked 23 (last) by students from Aiyura, Passam, and Sogeri National High Schools and 18 by students from Kerevat National High School. Very strong disagreement was also expressed with the following statements:

"English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools in Papua New Guinea."
"At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate."
"When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more."

This strong disagreement with statements which reflect discomfort about Papua New Guineans using English, a negative orientation to the educational status of English, and English as detracting from cultural identity appears to indicate that the year 12 students feel positive towards English as a language of verbal communication of Papua New Guineans, do not support abolishing English as a language of instruction in schools, and do not feel that using English has a detrimental effect on their identity as Papua New Guineans.

In identical fashion to the year 12 students, the first year university students were unanimous in affording a ranking of 1 to the following statement, "I wish that I could speak fluent and accurate English." In a similar vein, they also gave a high ranking to these statements:

"The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures."
"The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today."
"To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment."

First year university students disagreed most strongly with the following statement:

"At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate."

The statement was ranked last by students from the Papua New Guinea University of Technology and next-to-last by students from the University of Papua New Guinea. Very strong disagreement was also expressed concerning these statements:

"I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English."
"When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more."
"If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends."

In comparing the year 12 students' responses with those of the first year university students, an analysis of the respective top- and bottom-ranked items, as summarised in Tables 1 and 2, is revealing.

The three items which are included among the five top-ranked items of both response patterns (i.e., item 16, "I wish that I could speak fluent and accurate English"; item 23, "The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures"; and item 7, "To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment") indicate that both year 12 and first-year university students possess a strong cognitive-affective orientation towards English. Another positive response from both groups was elicited by item 11, "I like to see English speaking films." This item was ranked 4 by the national high school students and 5 by the university students. However, a significant difference is indicated by the respective responses to item 18, "The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today." The University students ranked this item 3, while the national high school students ranked it 7.

The above comparisons reveal strong similarities as well as some differences in both national high school and university students' positive orientation towards English. Equally strong similarities and some differ-ences are also revealed in a comparison of the five lowest-ranked items.

As revealed in Table 2, the three items which are included among the five lowest-ranked items of both response patterns (i.e., item 21, "I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speak English"; item 5, "At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate"; and item 3, "When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more") indicate that both year 12 and first-year university students believe that English does not detract from their cultural identity and that they feel comfortable about Papua New Guineans speaking English.

However, a significant difference is indicated by the respective re-sponses to item 22, "English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools (universities) in Papua New Guinea." The national high school students ranked this item a low 22, while the university students, still generally disagreeing with it, ranked it at 18. Another difference in the five lowest-ranked inclusions is the ranking of item 4, "If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends." This item was ranked 20 by the university students and 17 by the national high school students.

The above findings, while highlighting similarities between the language attitudes of year 12 national high school and first-year university students, also beg the question as to whether any development has taken place during the significant transition from high school to university life. In order to respond to this question, it is useful to briefly analyse the differ-ences which have become apparent in a comparison of the year 12 students' responses with those of the first-year university students. One example of this development is reflected in the finding (see Table 1) that the university students agreed more strongly (rank 3 compared with rank 7) than the national high school students that "The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today." One could hypothesise, and this would be worthy of further investigation, that year 12 students view national development in a far more simplistic fashion than first-year university students who, in a relatively short period of time have been able to acquire an in-depth understanding of the complexities of this concept. It would appear that year 12 students view development more in terms of economic advancement, e.g., increase of the Gross National Product, greater exploitation of natural resources, expansion of the manufacturing industry, etc. Preparing these students to become productive participants in national development is a major focus of the Papua New Guinean education system. This priority, together with the time constraints and competing curriculum areas at year 12, would explain this somewhat restricted view of what "development" constitutes.

Table 1 Comparison of the Response Pattern of the Year 12 National High School Students with that of the First-Year University Students, of the Five Top-Ranked Direct Attitude Questionnaire Items (Ranks in Parentheses)

Statement	Year 12 National High School	First-Year University
16. I wish that I could speak fluent and accurate Engliish.	Agree (1)	Agree (1)
23. The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures.	Agree (2)	Agree (2)
7. To read English is a kind of enjoyment.	Agree (3)	Agree (4)
18. The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today.	Agree (7)	Agree (3)
11. I like to see English speaking films.	Agree (4)	Agree (5)

In contrast, the liberal ethos of tertiary education, together with its greater emphasis on self-directed learning and individual responsibility for personal growth, would have the effect of deepening students' understanding of the breadth and complexity of issues such as development. This environment, combined with a year's additional maturity, would thus be conducive to enabling students to view development in the more holistic fashion in which human (including language) development plays a fundamental role.

Furthermore, there is a high-profile presence at both universities of activities which clearly link communication to national development. The University of Papua New Guinea has the South Pacific Centre for Communication and Information in Development, which conducts courses in journalism studies and publishes the widely-read paper Uni Tavur. Similarly, the Papua New Guinea University of Technology, through its Department of Language and Communication Studies, conducts the Communication for Development program. This program comprises popular and highly regarded certificate, diploma, and degree courses that prepare students to use highly developed language and communication skills in situations (i.e., to reach agreement and/or avoid conflicts between resource development companies, government departments and landowner organ-izations). Students in both institutions are thus exposed to academic activity which includes publicity, teaching, and research on the role of language and communication in development. This is not the case at the high school level.

The other significant divergence in responses among the top- and bottom-ranked items appears in the respective responses to item 22 (see Table 2), "English should not be a medium of instruction in schools (universities) in Papua New Guinea," which was ranked 22 by the year 12 national high school students and 18 by the first-year university students. In other words, the high school students feel more strongly than the university students that the status quo of English as a medium of instruction continue.

Table 2 Comparison of the Response Pattern of the Year 12 National High School Students with that of the First-Year University Students, of the Five Bottom-Ranked Direct Attitude Questionnaire Items (Ranks in Parentheses)

Statement	Year 12 National High School	First-Year University
21. I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speak English.	disgree (23)	disgree (22)
5. At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate.	disgree (21)	disgree (23)
22. English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools (universities) in Papua New Guinea.	disgree (22)	disgree (18)
3. When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more.	disgree (20)	disgree (21)
4. If I use English, I all be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends.	disgree (17)	disgree (20)

The question arises as to why the linguistic identity of the university students appears to be at greater threat than that of the high school students. A possible explanation is that university students are more aware of the status of Tok Pisin as a language of identity and as a national language. They would also be more aware of the current educational reforms which incorporate a significantly greater role in the school system to the first language of the children. Thus, while the university students still disagree with item 22, their disagreement is not as strong as that of the high school students, and they feel a greater need to assert their Papua New Guinean ethnolinguistic identity against the continually increasing influence of outside linguistic, cultural, and economic forces, especially from Australia. This continuing tension between Papua New Guinea and its former colonial master is frequently highlighted in the PNG press.

Furthermore, it is also likely that the university students would have a greater understanding of the potential of Tok Pisin as an effective vehicle of expressing even the most sophisticated of concepts. Thus, in the minds of these students, English is not granted automatically the status of being the only possible language of instruction. And the fact that the communicative potential of Tok Pisin is not being realized in the academic or professional sphere may well be the cause of the university students' greater uncertainty about whether English should be the medium of instruction.

Apart from items 18 and 22 which are discussed above, and which recorded a rank order difference of 4 between the respective responses of the national high school and university students, the responses to the other items showed considerable similarities, with the rank order difference between the two groups of students never being greater than 3. It is useful to now briefly explore the nature of these similarities and the language attitudes that they convey.

It is interesting to note that even though both national high school and university students disagree strongly with two of the items which indicated that their use of English would detract from their cultural identity (i.e, item 3, "When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more," and item 5, "At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate,"), they were not nearly so dogmatic about item 12, "If I use English, it means that I am not patriotic." This item was ranked 15 by the national high school students and 14 by the university students, with means of 2.60 and 2.68 respectively, indicating an ambivalence between agreeing and disagreeing with the statement. While the use of English obviously does not make the students less Papua New Guinean or more like an expatriate, it may have a bearing on their feelings of patriotism. This response may also indicate that Tok Pisin or the vernacular languages have a fundamental role in expressions of patriotism.

The responses to those items which indicate a positive orientation towards English (i.e., item 6, "I should not be forced to learn English"; item 7, "To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment"; item 8, "I do not feel awkward when using English"; item 9, "I love conversing with expatriates in English"; item 17, "I feel uneasy and lack confidence when speaking English"; and item 20, "I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school [university]") provide evidence that students in general feel positive towards reading, speaking, and learning English. Items 7, 8, 9, and 20 recorded means between 1.39 and 1.85, while items 6 and 17 recorded means between 2.27 and 2.57. While the responses to the latter two statements reflect ambivalence about compulsion to learn English and confidence when speaking it, those statements which indicate enjoyment in speaking and reading English and learning it at school, clearly reflect positive attitudes.

The responses to those items which reflect the social and instrumental value of English (i.e., item 2, "English is the mark of an educated person"; item 4, "If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends"; item 13, "If I use English, my status is raised"; and item 18, "The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today") indicate a divergence of attitudes among students. As discussed previously, there is general agreement among both groups of the important role of English in Papua New Guinea's development. However, with regard to the other three statements, there is considerable ambivalence or even strong disagreement, with the means ranging from 2.04 to 3.13. The mean of 3.13 (the only unambiguous "disagreement" rating among these four statements), was achieved by the university students' responses to item 4. This statement also received a rating of 20 from the university students, as compared to a rating of 17 from the national high school students. It would seem that prior to graduating from year 12, the use of English by students may be indicative of their general academic achievement. After graduating from year 12, academic success becomes more obvious and thus the status achieved by being a university student will elicit more praise and approval than the use of English. Item 10, "The Tok Pisin language is superior to English," attempted to elicit from students general responses to the value of Tok Pisin in comparison to English. The responses were ambiguous. National high school students gave this statement a rating of 13 with a mean of 2.57, while the university students responded with a rating of 14 and a mean of 2.68. One may conclude from these responses that there is a large divergence of views regarding language superiority and despite the generally positive attitudes towards English, this does not necessarily occur at the expense of Tok Pisin. More research is required in relation to students' attitudes towards Tok Pisin.

The three statements which may be associated with a positive orientation towards the educational and official status of English (i.e., item 1, "It is a good thing to have English as the main official language in PNG"; item 15, "My [social science and mathematics] textbooks should be written in, or translated into, Tok Pisin"; and item 22, "English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools (universities) in Papua New Guinea") achieved responses from both groups of students which appear to indicate that they feel that English should remain as a medium of instruction (item 22, ranked 22 by the national high school students with a mean of 3.24 and 18 by the university students with a mean of 2.99) and the official language of PNG (item 1, ranked 9 by the national high school students with a mean of 1.68 and 8 by the university students with a mean of 1.84). Both of the above responses correspond to the general view that textbooks should not be written in, or translated into Tok Pisin (item 15, ranked 18 by the national high school students with a mean of 3.03 and 16 by the university students with a mean of 2.85, suggesting that they should remain in English). While there is general agreement by both groups that the status quo with regard to the educational and official status of English should remain, there is an indication that this conservative view is held less strongly among the university students than among the national high school students.

The responses to the two statements indicating discomfort about Papua New Guineans speaking English (i.e., item 14, "I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Papua New Guinean speaking to another in English"; and item 21, "I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English") expressed unanimous disagreement, with the mean ranging from 3.04 to 3.34. The conclusion may therefore be reached that both the national high school and the university students feel comfortable and at ease when hearing other Papua New Guineans speaking English.

Responses to the two statements which would indicate either a positive or negative correlation of views on the intrinsic value of the English language and English based culture (i.e., item 11, "I like to see English-speaking films"; and item 19, "The English language sounds very nice") lead one to the conclusion that, among both groups of Papua New Guinean students, interest in Western culture as represented by English-language films is indeed a factor which leads to positive attitudes towards the English language. Both items received positive responses from both groups. Item 11 was ranked 4 by the national high school students with a mean of 1.44, and it was ranked 5 by the university students, with a mean of 1.65. Item 19 was ranked 10 by both the national high school and university students, with means of 1.62 and 1.96 respectively.

Furthermore, this study found that neither the national high school nor the university students associate the use of English with threats to their ethnolinguistic identity. The respondents were less clear, however, about whether the use of English inhibited their sense of patriotism, a finding which calls for further research.

Students from both groups, but especially those from the national high school, do not wish to see English abandoned as a medium of instruction, nor do they wish English to cease as Papua New Guinea's official language or the language of their textbooks. They want to improve their English, feel comfortable being surrounded by English, and are happy engaging in a variety of English activities.

While both year 12 national high school students and first-year university students exhibit many similarities in their attitudes towards English (they are, after all, only one year apart), one can nevertheless detect a distinct development. The university students, possibly due to greater maturity and exposure to influences which highlight Papua New Guinea's rich linguistic resources, appear to be less dogmatic than their high school counterparts as to the perceived predominance of English. It would be worthy of future research to see if this trend is even more pronounced with second- or third-year university students.

The majority of the 23 statements of the direct attitude questionnaire deliberately request responses relating to the respondents' perceptions towards English. Therefore, their attitudes towards Tok Pisin cannot be inferred in relation to the particular items either by implication or by elimination. A clear picture in relation to students' attitudes towards Tok Pisin will only be gained through further research. The two statements dealing directly with Tok Pisin (items 10 and 15) are insufficient on their own for conclusions regarding students' attitudes towards Tok Pisin to be drawn. The responses were intended to complement, and thereby throw light on, the statements eliciting students' attitudes towards English.

In summary, if the difference in the results of this study can be judged to be an accurate reflection of the differences in attitudes towards English of Papua New Guinean year 12 national high school students compared with first year university students, then the patterns of these responses suggest that, in spite of the similarities there are sufficient differences to indicate distinct developments. Attitudes towards language -- in this case, English -- cannot be viewed as stable, but are strongly responsive to contextual conditions, especially changing conditions which occur during the significant transition from national high school to university. Because these contextual conditions are never static over time, further changes in attitudes towards English may occur during the course of students' university careers as well as after the significant transition from university to work. Once again, further research is needed in this regard.

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Appendix A Means and Standard Deviations for Responses from Year 12 Students from All Four Natinoal High Schools to Direct Attitude Questions About Language

Statement	Mean	SD
1. It is a good thing to have English as the main official language in PNG.	1.68	0.83
2. English is the mark of an educated person.	2.04	1.05
3. When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more.	3.11	1.00
4. If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends.	2.92	0.97
5. At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate.	3.22	0.96
6. I should not be forced to learn English.	2.57	1.07
7. To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment.	1.39	0.66
8. I do not feel awkward when using English.	1.75	0.88
9. I love talking with expatriates in English.	1.56	0.73
10. The Tok Pisin language is superior to English.	2.57	0.99
11. I like to see English speaking films.	1.44	0.71
12. If I use English, it means that I am not patriotic.	2.60	1.04
13. If I use English, my status is raised.	2.64	1.04
14. I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Papua New Guinean speaking to another in English.	3.04	1.01
15. My social science and mathematics textbooks should be written in, or translated into, Tok Pisin.	3.03	1.11
16. I wish that I culd speak fluent and accurate English.	1.17	0.50
17. I feel uneasy and lack confidence when speaking English.	2.35	1.04
18. The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today.	1.62	0.86
19. The English language sounds very nice.	1.62	0.77
20. I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school.	1.50	0.79
21. I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English.	3.34	0.85
22. English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools in Papua New Guinea.	3.24	1.07
23. The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures.	1.32	0.63

Appendix B Comparison of Rank Orders of Responses from Year 12 Students from Each of the Four National High Schools to Direct Attitude Questions About Language

Statement	Rank Order
	AIY	KER	PAS	SOG	ALL
1. It is a good thing to have English as the main official language in PNG.	7	8	9	10	9
2. English is the mark of an educated person.	11	12	11	11	11
3. When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more.	20	21	18	18	20
4. If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends.	18	20	17	17	17
5. At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate.	22	23	19	20	21
6. I should not be forced to learn English.	14	12	14	16	13
7. To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment.	3	4	3	3	3
8. I do not feel awkward when using English.	10	10	8	9	10
9. I love talking with expatriates in English.	7	7	7	5	6
10. The Tok Pisin language is superior to English.	13	14	16	15	13
11. I like to see English speaking films.	4	4	5	4	4
12. If I use English, it means that I am not patriotic.	15	16	15	12	15
13. If I use English, my status is raised.	16	15	12	14	16
14. I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Papua New Guinean speaking to another in English.	19	17	20	19	19
15. My social science and mathematics textbooks should be written in, or translated into, Tok Pisin.	17	18	22	21	18
16. I wish that I culd speak fluent and accurate English.	1	1	1	1	1
17. I feel uneasy and lack confidence when speaking English.	12	11	12	13	12
18. The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today.	6	6	9	7	7
19. The English language sounds very nice.	9	9	4	8	7
20. I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school.	5	3	5	6	5
21. I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English.	23	18	23	23	23
22. English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools in Papua New Guinea.	21	22	21	22	22
23. The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures.	1	2	2	2	2

Appendix C Means and Standard Deviations for Responses from Year 1 Students from Both Universities

Statement	Mean	SD
1. It is a good thing to have English as the main official language in PNG.	1.84	0.93
2. English is the mark of an educated person.	2.34	1.04
3. When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more.	3.15	1.00
4. If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends.	23.13	0.90
5. At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate.	3.33	0.90
6. I should not be forced to learn English.	2.46	1.02
7. To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment.	1.63	0.71
8. I do not feel awkward when using English.	1.85	0.87
9. I love talking with expatriates in English.	1.75	0.77
10. The Tok Pisin language is superior to English.	2.68	1.00
11. I like to see English speaking films.	1.65	0.77
12. If I use English, it means that I am not patriotic.	2.68	0.92
13. If I use English, my status is raised.	2.87	0.97
14. I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Papua New Guinean speaking to another in English.	3.08	1.02
15. My social science and mathematics textbooks should be written in, or translated into, Tok Pisin.	2.85	1.15
16. I wish that I culd speak fluent and accurate English.	1.26	0.60
17. I feel uneasy and lack confidence when speaking English.	2.27	1.00
18. The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today.	1.62	0.84
19. The English language sounds very nice.	1.96	0.89
20. I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school.	1.78	0.98
21. I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English.	3.31	0.88
22. English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools in Papua New Guinea.	2.99	1.12
23. The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures.	1.57	0.81

Appendix D Means and Standard Deviations for Responses from Year 1 University of Papua New Guinea (UPNG) and Papua New Guinea University of Technology (PNGUT) Students to Direct Attitude Questions About Language

Statement	UPNG		PNGUT
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
1. It is a good thing to have English as the main official language in PNG.	1.80	0.96	1.87	0.90
2. English is the mark of an educated person.	2.29	0.08	2.37	1.00
3. When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more.	3.10	1.05	3.18	0.96
4. If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends.	3.07	0.96	3.23	0.79
5. At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate.	2.21	0.97	3.42	0.83
6. I should not be forced to learn English.	2.35	1.01	2.54	1.03
7. To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment.	1.62	0.73	1.65	0.69
8. I do not feel awkward when using English.	1.83	0.93	1.86	0.82
9. I love talking with expatriates in English.	1.69	0.76	1.80	0.77
10. The Tok Pisin language is superior to English.	2.53	1.02	2.80	0.96
11. I like to see English speaking films.	1.67	0.83	1.63	0.72
12. If I use English, it means that I am not patriotic.	2.68	0.94	2.69	0.91
13. If I use English, my status is raised.	2.86	1.03	2.88	0.92
14. I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Papua New Guinean speaking to another in English.	3.09	1.05	3.07	0.99
15. My social science and mathematics textbooks should be written in, or translated into, Tok Pisin.	2.84	1.15	2.86	1.15
16. I wish that I culd speak fluent and accurate English.	1.29	0.63	1.23	0.57
17. I feel uneasy and lack confidence when speaking English.	2.41	1.10	2.16	0.90
18. The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today.	1.53	0.79	1.69	0.87
19. The English language sounds very nice.	1.98	0.91	1.95	0.87
20. I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school.	1.67	0.92	1.86	1.01
21. I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English.	3.30	0.91	3.32	0.85
22. English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools in Papua New Guinea.	2.98	1.16	3.00	1.07
23. The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures.	1.57	0.83	1.56	0.79

Appendix E Comparison of Rank Orders of Responses from Year 1 Students from Both of the Universities to Direct Attitude Questions About Language

Statement	Rank Order
	UPNG	PNGUT	BOTH
1. It is a good thing to have English as the main official language in PNG.	8	9	8
2. English is the mark of an educated person.	11	12	12
3. When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more.	21	20	21
4. If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends.	19	21	20
5. At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate.	22	23	23
6. I should not be forced to learn English.	12	13	13
7. To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment.	4	4	4
8. I do not feel awkward when using English.	9	7	9
9. I love talking with expatriates in English.	7	6	6
10. The Tok Pisin language is superior to English.	14	15	14
11. I like to see English speaking films.	5	3	5
12. If I use English, it means that I am not patriotic.	15	14	15
13. If I use English, my status is raised.	17	17	17
14. I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Papua New Guinean speaking to another in English.	20	19	19
15. My social science and mathematics textbooks should be written in, or translated into, Tok Pisin.	16	16	16
16. I wish that I culd speak fluent and accurate English.	1	1	1
17. I feel uneasy and lack confidence when speaking English.	13	11	11
18. The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today.	2	5	3
19. The English language sounds very nice.	10	10	10
20. I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school.	5	7	7
21. I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English.	23	22	22
22. English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools in Papua New Guinea.	18	18	18
23. The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures.	3	2	2

Appendix F Means and Standard Deviations for Responses from the Two Combined Tallies of Year 12 National High School and Year 1 University Students' Responses to Direct Attitude Questions About Language

Statement	All NHSs		Both UNIs
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
1. It is a good thing to have English as the main official language in PNG.	1.68	0.83	1.84	0.93
2. English is the mark of an educated person.	2.04	1.05	2.34	1.04
3. When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more.	3.11	1.00	3.15	1.00
4. If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends.	2.92	0.97	3.13	0.90
5. At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate.	3.22	0.96	3.33	0.90
6. I should not be forced to learn English.	2.57	1.07	2.46	1.02
7. To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment.	1.39	0.66	1.63	0.71
8. I do not feel awkward when using English.	1.75	0.88	1.85	0.87
9. I love talking with expatriates in English.	1.56	0.73	1.75	0.77
10. The Tok Pisin language is superior to English.	2.57	0.99	2.68	1.00
11. I like to see English speaking films.	1.44	0.71	1.65	0.77
12. If I use English, it means that I am not patriotic.	2.60	1.04	2.68	0.92
13. If I use English, my status is raised.	2.64	1.04	2.87	0.97
14. I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Papua New Guinean speaking to another in English.	3.04	1.01	3.08	1.02
15. My social science and mathematics textbooks should be written in, or translated into, Tok Pisin.	3.03	1.11	2.85	1.15
16. I wish that I culd speak fluent and accurate English.	1.17	0.50	1.26	0.60
17. I feel uneasy and lack confidence when speaking English.	2.35	1.04	2.27	1.00
18. The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today.	1.62	0.86	1.62	0.84
19. The English language sounds very nice.	1.62	0.77	1.96	0.89
20. I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school.	1.50	0.79	1.78	0.98
21. I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English.	3.34	0.85	3.31	0.88
22. English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools in Papua New Guinea.	3.24	1.07	2.99	1.12
23. The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures.	1.32	0.63	1.57	0.81

Appendix G Comparison of the Combined Rank Orders of Responses from Year 12 National High School Students and the Year 1 University Students

Statement	Rank Order
	Mean	SD
1. It is a good thing to have English as the main official language in PNG.	9	8
2. English is the mark of an educated person.	11	12
3. When using English, I do not feel that I am Papua New Guinean any more.	20	21
4. If I use English, I will be praised and approved of by my family, relatives and friends.	17	20
5. At times I fear that by using English I will become like an expatriate.	21	23
6. I should not be forced to learn English.	13	13
7. To read English magazines is a kind of enjoyment.	3	4
8. I do not feel awkward when using English.	10	9
9. I love talking with expatriates in English.	6	6
10. The Tok Pisin language is superior to English.	13	14
11. I like to see English speaking films.	4	5
12. If I use English, it means that I am not patriotic.	15	14
13. If I use English, my status is raised.	16	17
14. I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Papua New Guinean speaking to another in English.	19	19
15. My social science and mathematics textbooks should be written in, or translated into, Tok Pisin.	18	16
16. I wish that I culd speak fluent and accurate English.	1	1
17. I feel uneasy and lack confidence when speaking English.	12	11
18. The use of English is one of the most crucial factors in Papua New Guinea's development today.	7	3
19. The English language sounds very nice.	7	10
20. I would take English even if it were not a compulsory subject at school.	5	7
21. I feel uneasy when hearing a Papua New Guinean speaking English.	23	22
22. English should not be a medium of instruction in the schools in Papua New Guinea.	22	18
23. The command of English is very helpful in understanding expatriates and their cultures.	2	2

Dr. Paul Buschenhofen is an associate professor in the Department of Language and Communication Studies at the Papua New Guinea University of Technology in Lae. He lectures in Business and Technical Communication, and has published extensively in these fields. Currently the recipient of a PNGUT research award, he is investigating the relationship between gender and English language attitudes and success at English language studies. Prior to taking up his current appointment in January 1994, Dr. Buschenhofen lectured in teacher education at Edith Cowan University and in English linguistics at the Guangzhou Foreign Language University in China.