The literature showed that there are numerous definitions of an outcomes-based approach (OBA); most of them share a common emphasis on setting clearer standards with observable outcomes. An OBA may provide a platform to make teaching and learning more explicit and transparent (Andrich, 2002; D'Andrea, 2003; Orsmond, 2006).

William Spady (1994, p. 1), internationally recognised as one of the major developers and leaders of the OBA movement, commented that

Recently, the OBA has also been widely adopted globally in tertiary science subjects, and many studies have demonstrated the benefits of such an approach.

A study of first-year undergraduate chemistry and physics classes in Australia showed that a student-focused approach to teaching, which is the main characteristic of the OBA, appeared to be associated with higher quality learning outcomes (Trigwell et. al, 1999)

In another biology assessment study in the UK, Orsmond, Merry and Sheffield (2006) explored how the introduction of learning outcomes and outcomes-based assessments was one approach to increasing transparency within the curriculum.

The Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) now requires the OBA for approval of Food Science programmes in the US (Hartel, 2004). The IFT Education Standards require participating programmes to assess student learning based on specified outcomes (Hartel & Gardner, 2003), as the IFT believes this approach allows the programmes to have the "potential to significantly enhance excellence in Food Science education through moving instruction to be more student-oriented" (Hartel, 2006, p. 69).

Learning outcomes in mathematics are sometimes regarded as being more easily specified than in many other disciplines at the undergraduate level (Ewell, 2006a), although it is not generally agreed in the field. As stated in the Mathematics Association of America (MAA) Guidelines for Programs and Departments in Undergraduate Mathematical Sciences, "the measures of student learning and other student outcomes should be included" to help departments gauge the effectiveness of the recommendations suggested by the Committee on the Undergraduate Program in Mathematics. The Department of Mathematics and Statistics at the American University currently places a lot of attention on assessing learning outcomes. The Department believes that this contributes to their ability to improve their programmes and expand their numbers (Kalman, Pascal & Stallings, 2006).

Curriculum design, development and review at CUHK are guided by the Integrated Framework for Curriculum Development and Review (Undergraduate programmes, Taught postgraduate programmes), which was launched in 2004. This framework emphasises the alignment of learning outcomes, content, learning activities and assessment, with a strong emphasis on using evidence and feedback to inform the process. It provides operational guidelines on how an OBA can be implemented.
 

To meet the needs of an ever-changing society effectively, many different modes of educational design have been developed recently. One of the most widely adopted designs is the OBA. The development of an OBA in education can be traced back to the early 1950s.
 

In 2005, the University Grants Committee (UGC) of Hong Kong encouraged tertiary institutions in Hong Kong to nurture an OBA culture and take ownership for using an OBA in teaching and learning. In effect, the fundamental concepts of the OBA have long been entrenched in the teaching practices of the Faculty of Science at CUHK, despite the fact that many colleagues may not be familiar with its more formal pedagogical language. With the introduction of the Integrated Framework in 2004, and periodic programme reviews in CUHK, front-line teachers have become more sophisticated in making explicit reference to the five components of the framework, namely, learning outcomes, content, learning activities, assessment and feedback for evaluation in the development and review of academic curricula. A lot of attention has also been paid to aligning all of these components and other elements with learning outcomes. The curriculum has become more authentic and student-oriented, and we are already amidst a transition from a more traditional approach towards the OBA.
 

Although the terms "learning outcomes" and "instructional objectives" are sometimes used interchangeably (Harden et al., 1999), the former is believed to be more adaptable to the needs of the 21^st century, as it is closely linked to the learning and assessment process. Otter (1992) defines learning outcomes as

In response to the needs of the society, the use of learning outcomes has evolved.

According to Spady (1994, p. 2), outcomes should be

More recently, Gosling and Moon (2001) have defined learning outcomes as

Peter Ewell (2006b, p. 24) of the US-based National Center for Higher Education Management Systems (NCHEMS), who is also the UGC’s consultant on OBAs, explained that in higher education, outcomes are usually broadly regarded as

It can be seen that there has been a series of initiatives to promote the specification of outcomes under a variety of labels. The reactions of the higher education community have been mixed, however. The early movement - the so-called behavioural objective movement - advocated the specification of objectives that were very precisely formulated and measurable. This position was heavily criticised by many who claimed that the most important educational outcomes could not be specified in precise terms, nor could they be measured. Attempts to introduce precision inevitably trivialised the most important outcomes, such as the development of higher order thinking qualities. Such criticisms were seen as particular apposite by the higher education community.

The degree of acceptance of subsequent initiatives within higher education has depended on the extent to which their proponents have followed the behavioural objectives movement in demanding precise, but narrowly defined, objectives. The capabilities movement, for example, was derived with vocational education in mind and received little acceptance in higher education. More contemporary initiatives, which have had a measure of acceptance by the higher education community, have accepted that universities strive to nurture in-depth-disciplinary and broad-disciplinary knowledge and qualities such as attitude, critical and creative thinking and the solving of complex real-life problems. Schemes for specifying outcomes could gain wider acceptance if they permitted these.

In the CUHK Strategic Plan (2005), the University formulated a set of desired outcomes for its graduates:

	an appreciation of the values of a broad range of intellectual disciplines as well as general knowledge;
	a depth of knowledge within a specialty, not only as an end in itself but also as a vehicle for experience in serious study and enquiry;
	a high level of bilingual proficiency in Chinese and English;
	a basket of skills including numeracy, analytic skills and IT capability, and ability to continue with life-long learning and professional development;
	have cultivated a habit of reading widely, critical and independent, effective in communication and working in a team;
	have a deep understanding of Chinese culture and an appreciation of other cultures, a high degree of inter-cultural sensitivity, tolerance and a global perspective;
	an attitude of compassion, honesty and integrity, and the ability to contribute as citizens and leaders;
	a sense of purpose, responsibility and commitment in life, a desire to serve, as well as taste in their pursuits.

With reference to the set of expected learning outcomes specified by the university, the programmes offered by the Faculty of Science at CUHK are in the process of developing and refining their programme learning outcomes (please refer to the Project Progress section).

The CUHK initiatives, therefore, advance narrowly defined behavioural objectives. The programme learning outcomes derived have been defined as the knowledge, skills and values needed by graduates to make a useful contribution to the knowledge-based society that Hong Kong is striving to become (see examples of learning outcomes for science graduates). This has meant that the initial stress of the learning outcomes has been at the programme, rather than the course level. However, it has also been suggested that students ought to be able to tell from the programme/course learning outcomes what kind of abilities they should have developed after studying a particular course.
 

Although the traditional education system focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from teachers to students, many studies have shown that an OBA provides ways for curriculum design to shift the learning and teaching focus to what students can actually do after their learning experiences (Ecclestone, 1999; Harden et al., 1999; Spady, 1994). The whole curriculum usually starts with a set of desired learning results, which puts the focus on the development of the learners (Dejager & Nieuwenhuis, 2005).

This curriculum reform has been applied widely not only in primary and secondary schools, but also in higher education systems since the 1980s. This shift in the learning and teaching paradigm has been quite marked. It is indeed a paradigm shift from a traditional teaching-oriented/content-oriented system to a student-oriented system (Harden et al., 1999; Hartel, 2006).

In the past, science subjects in tertiary institutes were often taught traditionally, with lectures being the main means of transmitting knowledge to students. The revised Bloom's taxonomy is helpful for understanding these paradigm shifts. Traditional science subjects that place a strong emphasis on knowledge and cognitive processes are located in the top left-hand corner of the taxonomy table, as shown in the yellow section of Fig. 1. To enhance student learning in the new century, the curriculum, together with the teaching and learning pedagogy, in the Faculty of Science at CUHK has evolved over time. Now, greater focus is put on exploring a wider range of student learning dimensions. The curriculum is focused on ways to cover the whole grid of the table by articulating the learning outcomes across all dimensions of the curriculum (the yellow and green areas of Fig. 1). Many inter-disciplinary programmes have been developed in recent years, and experimental and project-based activities have been introduced as one of the main teaching and learning methods.

Fig. 1 The Revised Bloom's Taxonomy Table

Guided by the Integrated Framework, curriculum developments have been aimed at ensuring the programme can provide the best environment with a variety of learning activities to nurture the desired learning outcomes. Programmes are also urged to formulate appropriate assessment strategies with a view to aligning them with learning activities and learning outcomes. Innovative assessment strategies have been developed to involve students and to make use of assessment as a learning activity and have been implemented in different learning activities in various courses in the constituent departments of the Faculty. The curricula in science subjects have become more authentic and student-oriented, and we are on the way towards an OBA.